Not only did snipers unnerve the garrison. There is an epilogue to Budapest’s fall. In packed cinemas many watched newsreels of the fighting just kilometers away. • Estonia The remaining defenders finally surrendered 13 February 1945. It was published in English by the Militaria press in Budapest in 2005, under the title Boy Soldier. Troops, along with the civilians, used heavy fog to their advantage. Das Deutsche Reich und der Zweite Weltkrieg [Germany and the Second World War] (in German). The shortened German battle line still covered most of Pest, roughly following a heightened railway embankment that ringed the eastern half of the city and extended south through Csepel Island. Subsequent investigations revealed that one of the ill-fated emissaries drove over a land mine, and the other was hit by random mortar fire. • Nazi plunder Fighting broke out in the sewers, as both sides used them for troop movements. During a seesaw struggle for the adjoining Little Schwabian Hill, Hungarian Zrinyi assault guns, in tandem with troopers from the Eighth SS, retook the height and held it until February 6. For dinner, the Soviet long-range artillery sends heavy shells into the city. The next day, two groups of Soviet emissaries appeared as expected. Horthy and his government were replaced by "Hungarist" Ferenc Szálasi, led by the far-right National Socialist Arrow Cross Party. • Home front They wore fur coats and built barricades under the orders of the SS. A. Ostapenko. The leader of the emissaries, Captain Miklós Steinmetz, appealed for a negotiation, but to no avail. During the next three days it knifed fifty miles toward the rail junction at Komárom, which was the main Axis supply terminus for much of the Hungarian campaign. Wherever we passed, in every hall, corridor, there were wounded, operations were in progress on ordinary tables, we heard cries and wailing everywhere…. 600–700 German soldiers reached the main German lines from Budapest. • Eastern Romania Waffen SS General Karl Pfeffer-Wildenbruch, the commander of the IX Waffen SS Alpine Corps, was put in charge of the city's defences. Media in category "Battle of Budapest" The following 37 files are in this category, out of 37 total. The Germans and Hungarians were usually barefooted: in those days they paid due reverence to soled footwear.’. Below, in Farkasreti Cemetery, Soviet and German soldiers fought a macabre battle among its gravestones and crypts. Chapter 5: With Hungary's capital), Серых, Семен Прокофьевич. It was true; the Soviets had somehow entered the back door into Budapest and were just two miles from the Royal Palace. Despite the realization that further defense of Buda was pointless and that there would be no relief, the Germans and Hungarians hung grimly on for another six days. • Syria and Lebanon In terms of human trauma, it comes second only to Stalingrad, comparisons to which were even being made by soldiers, both German and Soviet, fighting at the time. Moskva. On New Year’s Day the lead elements of the newly arrived Third SS Totenkopf (Death’s Head) and Fifth SS Wiking (Viking) Panzer Divisions, advancing in column and without initial artillery preparation, crashed into the overextended Soviet Fourth Guards Army near Táta. In three days Gille’s panzer spearheads had driven twenty-five to thirty miles over rugged terrain, half the distance to Budapest. German soldiers rushing to rejoin their units were amazed to see civilians desperately trying to hitch rides back into the dying city. Chapter 18: Helping the European people. For Adolf Hitler, Budapest was vital. A cold wind cuts through the Tunnel and its fingers stroke the hair of the dead. 1 Briefings 1.1 Decisive victory 1.2 Victory 1.3 Defeat 2 Walkthrough 3 Locations 4 Messages The 25th Guards Rifle Division operated from the Soviet side in combat on the island (for losses see below). He therefore ordered General Rodion Malinovsky to seize the city without delay.[5]. While the defense of Pest collapsed, the Germans were surreptitiously disengaging Gille’s bloodied but still dangerous corps from the northern sector and stealthily redeploying it south by rail. The Siege of Budapest or Battle of Budapest was the 50-day-long encirclement by Soviet and Romanian forces of the Hungarian capital of Budapest, near the end of World War II. • Manila • Total war I was a young teenager at the time and remember spending most of the siege deep in our cellar lit by candles amid food stocks and coal while the city shook itself apart. It was during this time that the heroic Swedish emissary Raoul Wallenberg made his name by resorting to every means possible — Red Cross and Swedish government passes, real and forged, cajolery, bribery, and reckless courage — to save as many of Budapest’s Jews as possible. The Germans were forced to withdraw on 12 January. The main citadel, (Gellért Hill), was defended by elite Waffen-SS troops who successfully repelled several Soviet assaults. • Indonesian National Revolution, Budapest assault group (January 21, 1945), Romanian military actions in World War II, The start of the siege and the first German offensive, The third German offensive, breakout and surrender, "The worst suffering of the Hungarian population is due to the rape of women. St. Clair, Joe; Phelps, Brian; Bánáthy, Béla (1996). Above the arches seagulls used to oscillate. More than 1,000,000 men, split into two operating maneuver groups, advanced. In the beginning, they cowered together when a round exploded nearby. After the initial panic a strange lull took place. When Titans Clashed: How the Red Army Stopped Hitler. A short walk but what a walk! • Pearl Harbor • Soviet Union (Barbarossa) • Neptune In desperation, Pfeffer-Wildenbruch decided to lead the remnants of his troops out of Budapest. Faced with the annihilation of the entire Pest group, Hitler finally consented to giving up the eastern bridgehead and consolidating the garrison’s defense in Buda. В боях рожденная... — М.: Воениздат, 1982. On February 10, the Soviets’ Eighty-third Marine Brigade stormed the heights, managing to carve out a foothold near the summit in the area of the Japanese and Swiss residences. Due to heavy German fire, only during the night of 29 December did the Soviets manage to retrieve Ostapenko's body. An estimated two thousand wounded were burned or suffocated to death in fires that broke out in the catacombs under the Royal Palace. Within a day the Soviets managed to seal off most escape routes and set up an extensive manhunt. On 7 November 1944, Soviet and Romanian troops entered the eastern suburbs, 20 kilometers from the old town. For weeks afterward, especially after the spring thaw, bloated bodies piled up against these same pontoons and bridge pylons. As the new right-wing government and its German allies prepared the defense of the capital, IX SS Mountain Corps, consisting of two Waffen SS divisions, was sent to Budapest to strengthen the city's defense. The defense of Budapest was fatally compromised with the Soviet seizure of this key tactical height. On Castle Hill thousands were crammed into several miles of tunnels bored into the surrounding natural limestone formations. Captured on Rose Hill, he expected immediate execution when his winter smock was torn open, revealing his SS runes and combat decorations. In the heart of Budapest the German garrison defends itself with fanatical bravery. With three rifle corps on line, supported by heavy assault guns, armor, artillery, and combat engineers, the Soviet forces relentlessly ground down the outnumbered defenders. Sensing the kill, the Soviets intensified their attacks through Farkasreti Cemetery and Schwabian Hill. Once again the starving garrison could hear the sounds of approaching battle, this time from the southwest. The German and Hungarian defenders, overwhelmed, tried to trade space for time to slow down the Soviet advance. I’m telling you, leave your SS runes and your decorations here; it will be better for your future health. • Czechoslovakia Articles with Hungarian-language external links, Hungary articles missing geocoordinate data, Articles incorporating text from Wikipedia, Battles and operations of the Soviet–German War, Battles of World War II involving Hungary, Battles and operations of World War II involving Germany, http://books.google.com/books?id=tAOgAAAAMAAJ, http://books.google.be/books?id=cLY1z-XLd_IC&pg=PR5&lpg=PR5&dq=AFTER+THE+BATTLE+40+-+BUDAPEST+1944&source=bl&ots=508J-yFNh6&sig=Z0L2C-mBHopRCDyyzoXL2tx2F8g&hl=en&sa=X&ei=jmeET7L0NZHpggey7s3eBw&ved=0CEEQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=ukrainian%20front&f=false, Андрющенко, Сергей Александрович. The Siege of Budapest or Battle of Budapest was the 50-day-long encirclement by Soviet and Romanian forces of the Hungarian capital of Budapest, near the end of World War II.Part of the broader Budapest Offensive, the siege began when Budapest, defended by Hungarian and German troops, was first encircled on 26 December 1944 by the Red Army and the Romanian Army. [22]:70–71, Even embassy staff from neutral countries were captured and raped, as documented when Soviet soldiers attacked the Swedish legation in Germany. Then inside the palace we had to descend lower and lower. Overall, more than 500,000 Hungarians were transported to the Soviet Union (including between 100,000 and 170,000 Hungarian ethnic Germans) . This title is presented with a new foreword by Istvan Deak. Festung Budapest (2012) is a table-top war game simulation of parts of the siege using the Advanced Squad Leader (ASL) system. HistoryNet.com contains daily features, photo galleries and over 5,000 articles originally published in our various magazines. Their patience was eventually rewarded when they were able to surprise two German officers, killing one and dragging the other back through the sewers to Soviet lines. The Soviets blamed the Germans for wantonly killing the officers and whipped up their propaganda machine, thereby inflaming emotions in the increasingly bloody battle. Hundreds of thousands of poorer or displaced civilians were not as fortunate, often prowling the streets after dark foraging for scraps of food. The swift and unexpected arrival of numerous dusky-brown Soviet T-34 tanks near the small towns of Vecsés and Soroksár, just fourteen miles from the Royal Palace, threw the city into a panic. Consisting of four of the most battle-hardened Waffen SS Panzer units, including the dreaded Leibstandarte and Das Reich divisions, this formidable force was squandered in early March during an ill-conceived panzer ‘death ride’ into waiting and well-prepared Soviet anti-tank defenses near Lake Balaton. Small groups advanced using coordinated assault techniques, others just ran pell-mell toward the Soviet positions. The fighting had been bitter and costly. On one occasion Vannay members infiltrated Soviet lines near Janos Hospital and carved up several Hungarian defectors, who were broadcasting propaganda over Soviet-provided loudspeakers. The thud of shots and the clatter of machine guns mingle with the muffled rumbling of the aircraft circling over Budapest. In contrast, highly urbanized Pest, situated on the Danube’s flat east bank, was exposed through the centuries to a host of invaders from the east — most notably Mongols, Ottomans, Russians, and Romanians. Handily defeated by the now highly proficient Soviets, this reverse of Hitler’s best divisions finally broke German resistance in Hungary. Consequently, psychological warfare increased as the battle intensified. In retrospect I guess we were rather lucky as we lived with two unexploded bombs in the house, which my aunt nicknamed Rosza and Zizi. The Soviet failure to track these dangerous units enabled the Germans to achieve full tactical surprise and a quick breakthrough. Military Publisher. Additionally, an entire Soviet front, the Third Ukrainian, commanded by Marshal Fedor Ivanovich Tolbukhin, the ‘Liberator of Belgrade,’ appeared from the south after a brilliant wheeling maneuver through the Balkans.By late October, the Soviet offensive slowed as it approached historic Budapest. Triumph both in offence and defence: from Vistula-Oder to Balaton. In mid-January, Csepel Island was taken, along with its military factories, which were still producing Panzerfausts and shells, even under Soviet fire. Flying low along the river, Soviet fighter-bombers raked the exposed columns. Die Ostfront 1943/44 – Der Krieg im Osten und an den Nebenfronten [The Eastern Front 1943–1944: The War in the East and on the Neighbouring Fronts]. • • Hungary With the loss of Budapest’s main airport on December 27, the supply situation became critical. Three German division commanders lay among the fallen. • Soviet occupations The munitions factories founded by the great Hungarian Jewish industrial magnate Manfred Weiss, the ‘Hungarian Krupp,’ continued to fabricate artillery rounds, small arms ammunition, and Panzerfausts for the defense of Budapest until literally the last moment. An estimated 50,000 women and girls were raped,[4]:348–350[20][notes 1] although estimates vary from 5,000 to 200,000. . At eight o’clock that night, while President Franklin D. Roosevelt was dining with Prime Minister Winston Churchill and Stalin at Yalta, the garrison began its breakout attempt. The Soviet forces experienced from 100,000 to 160,000 casualties. By this time the bulk of Budapest’s almost one million civilians huddled in cellars, ground-floor apartments, and tunnels throughout the city. Along the Danube quay, where one strolled pleasantly under the lanterns in the pale summer nights in front of the row of world famous hotels — the Ritz, Bristol, Hungaria and Carlton — work detachments prepare for war. • Philippines My mother, high strung at the best of times, suffered near nervous breakdowns when the heavy ‘ack-ack’ just above us in the Citadel opened up on the Soviet bombers, which hit us several times daily. • Operation Paperclip The Siege of Budapest or the Battle of Budapest was the 50-day-long encirclement of the Hungarian capital of Budapest by Soviet forces near the end of World War II.Part of the broader Budapest Offensive, the siege began when Budapest, defended by Hungarian and German troops, was first encircled on 26 December 1944 by the Red Army and the Romanian Army. The immortal battalion. They were known collectively as the "Volunteer Regiment of Buda.". A German war correspondent dramatically reported: The sky gleams in red and violet colors over the Hungarian capital. On 11 February 1945, Gellért Hill finally fell after six weeks of fighting when the Soviets launched a heavy attack from three directions simultaneously. The Germans lost all or most of the 13th Panzer Division, 60th Panzergrenadier Division Feldherrnhalle, 8th SS Cavalry Division Florian Geyer and the 22nd SS Volunteer Cavalry Division Maria Theresa. The southern option seemed more promising; German forces would drive east from between Lake Balaton and Lake Velence, seize Székesfehérvár, and wheel northeast toward Budapest over relatively flat terrain. Battle area in the main street of Budapest, with Russian tanks in the distance. The German commander did not typically consult the Hungarian commander of the city. In response Tolbukhin rushed four additional corps — each one averaging fifteen thousand to twenty-five thousand men — north from the Székesfehérvár area to buttress his crumbling line. However, immediately after the siege, they rounded up thousands of Hungarian civilians and added them to the prisoner of war count, allowing the Soviets to validate their previously inflated figures.[12]. In one counterattack, several German Hummel 150mm self-propelled artillery pieces led the young students’ charge. The city was shivering and it was not only the exceptionally cold weather. Therefore the defiant perseverance, the repeated thrusts into the masses of the enemy. The Germans threw everything they could into the support of Budapest. Soviet tank units roared in the evening gloom toward unsuspecting, undefended western Buda. For a while they tried to carry on. Six Soviet marines even managed to get to Castle Hill and capture a German officer before returning to their own lines – still underground. On 17 January, Operation Konrad III was launched. Consequently, on January 17 the Chain and Elizabeth bridges into Buda were jammed. Less reliable was the recently conscripted Twelfth Reserve Infantry Division. By January 3, Marshal Tolbukhin, commanding the outer encirclement ring, was forced to acknowledge the severity of the threat bearing down from the west and northwest. On 10 February, after a violent assault, Soviet marines established a bridgehead on Castle Hill, while almost cutting the remaining garrison in half. This Soviet action stopped the offensive near Bicske, less than 20 kilometers west of Budapest. 1979. The Soviets, masters at infiltration and small-unit patrolling, were sometimes able to penetrate behind the urban defense lines to acquire intelligence, snatch prisoners, and kill officers. When the mortar rounds fell in the moving mass of humanity, men and material were thrown from both sides of the bridge into the Danube.’. Hauptsturmführer (Captain) Joachim Boosfeld was in the initial Eighth SS attack. The four SS soldiers were immediately stripped naked and shot, while the Hungarians barely escaped with their lives by promising to help the Soviets with the roundup. • Surrender of Germany Near the Janos Hospital a company of the untrained Hungarian University Storm Battalion scrambled to stop the early Russian probe. Moskva. The memoir also includes an account of World War II and the post-war transition of the country into Soviet-style Communism. • Hong Kong Their assault groups, supported by armor, assault guns, and several Lend-Lease Sherman tanks, slowly swept past the forward Axis strongpoints. Several dozen tanks, assault guns, and self-propelled howitzers provided credible armored support for the garrison until fuel stocks ran low. The garrison could both see and hear the approaching fighting, the sound of which was magnified by heavy cloud cover, while the relief troops heard the city’s haunting air-raid sirens. • Normandy • Iran • Belgrade Administration was not the utmost priority and documents were lost after the war. The coffee house habitus meet as usual at five p.m. in the Negresco and knot the tablecloth fringes together out of boredom, then move on to the Dubarry or Hungarica Bar around seven to have their customary ‘Flip’ or a good Tocay — while Soviet aircraft indiscriminately drop bombs followed by flares into the city. One day the sound of fighting grew closer and German soldiers, I remember they were very young, took up positions in our house and told us to stay in the cellar. For weeks afterward, especially after the spring thaw, bloated bodies piled up against these same pontoons and bridge pylons. When not enduring the constant shelling and bombing, they were ravaged daily by the depredations of Arrowcross thugs, who forced their way into the ghetto and committed unspeakable acts of brutality. Sova’s corps, already having suffered eleven thousand casualties out of its thirty-six-thousand-man force, was pulled out by Malinovsky, who was incensed by the Romanian tendency to whip up frenzied resistance among previously demoralized Hungarian troops. Before the Danube froze, some supplies could be sent on barges, under the cover of darkness and fog. Cowering behind quickly erected barricades, moving with exemplary tenacity from cellar to cellar, SS-men, tank grenadiers of the army, Hungarian parachutists, supported by German tanks encounter the Soviet storm troops again and again. Black Widow is not about what happened in Budapest, but it’s a huge jumping-off point for us to understand the heaviness of Natasha’s burden. The German battle group defending Csepel Island, Budapest’s industrial heart, was forced out after a bloody fight through its many factories and machine shops. • Technology • Morgenthau Plan German counterbattery fire was negligible and was unable to answer the torrent of Soviet shellfire. • Okinawa As the siege lengthened and supplies diminished, hunger and sickness affected almost all the defenders. Entire families, pushing prams, trudged through the snow and ice. The Germans lost all or most of the 13th Panzer Division, 60th Panzergrenadier Division Feldherrnhalle, 8th SS Cavalry Division Florian Geyer and the 22nd SS Volunteer Cavalry Division Maria Theresa. By now daily rations were down to melted snow, horsemeat, and 150 grams of bread. Trucks patrolled the edge of the Buda hills, offering safe conduct to those who surrendered. On 2 February 1945, the strength of the Royal Hungarian Army Although the subway tunnels were blocked early in the siege, the city was laced with countless sewer mains, maintenance tunnels, and passages. On 17 January 1945, Hitler agreed to withdraw the remaining troops from Pest to try to defend Buda. The majority of the escapees were killed, wounded, or captured by the Soviet troops. Their negotiating effort was a failure, though, as General Wildenbruch refused the surrender conditions and sent the Soviet agents back to the battlefield. The six weeks between the Soviets’ November arrival in Pest’s eastern suburbs and the Christmas night encirclement of the entire city proved surreal for the capital’s almost one million inhabitants. Most of the garrison suffered from diarrhea and were infested with lice. Of the approximately thirty thousand souls participating in the breakout only 785 German and Hungarian soldiers managed to evade the relentless Soviet pursuit and reach German lines. Josef Stalin also viewed Hungary’s capital city as a key political prize. Almost forty thousand Hungarian civilians, about half of whom were Jewish, died in the carnage. The Fifth Guard Cavalry Corps rode sixty-five miles in twenty-four hours, arriving with the other redeployed corps in the nick of time to blunt the increasingly attenuated German advance. ), The events in the Naphegy and Krisztinaváros neighborhoods of Budapest are told in a few surviving diaries and memoirs. At the same time, fighting raged from villa to villa below and other detachments infiltrated the Orthodox Church in the Taban district, almost splitting the defense. Бессмертный батальон. By this time, some captured Hungarian soldiers defected and fought on the Soviet side. Suffering from nearly 200,000 deaths in three years fighting the Soviet Union, and with the front lines approaching its own cities, by early 1944 Hungary was ready to exit the war. The diary of the young runner describes day-to-day life and survival of both civilians and soldiers. Nearby, Soviet and German forces were fighting for the city cemetery amongst shell-opened tombs; it would last for several days. And in the square there were bomb craters, trenches, wreckage…there were only the flames to light our way. • Berlin Two full rifle corps exerted relentless pressure against the defenders in the Kelenfold district in southern Buda and the bleeding German line defending the valleys, saddles, and hilltops facing west. At night the relief force and the defenders communicated with each other using flares. Hungarian people standing by watching events. Nearby, a group of university students fought viciously for the heights of Rose Hill. That morning German soldiers spotted the church spires and turrets of the distinctive Budapest skyline poking through the morning fog from the highlands near Dobogoko. ISBN 978-3-421-06235-2.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Flames rose towards the sky from several places in the Palace itself. Budapest's defenders asked permission to leave the city and escape the encirclement. The Battle of Budapest at the end of the Second World War lasted 50 days. A German military mail truck picked up one young woman who had been shopping near Bicske for food. Margit Island was defended by a mixed battle group. Despite this setback, the Germans successfully brought its cargo down to Budapest under cover of fog and darkness. Civilian corpses already lay in the streets. German troops destroyed the bridges on 18 January, despite protests from Hungarian officers. The island was still attached to the rest of the city by the remaining half of the Margaret Bridge and was used as a parachute drop zone as well as for covering improvised airstrips set up in the city center. My mother and aunt tried to console him as he wept about missing his family and that he didn’t want to die alone in Budapest. During the night of 28 December 1944, the 2nd and 3rd Ukrainian Front contacted the besieged Germans by radios and loudspeakers and told them about a negotiation for the city's capitulation. Within a month Vienna had fallen. The subterranean war in Budapest worked both ways, however. Advancing German spearheads were just miles from the Soviets’ main supply routes crossing the river and were just one bound from Budapest. The Parliament, ostentatiously outdoing Westminster, spire for spire, Gothic arch for Gothic arch, faces the dirty gray Danube, the heart of the city. The Battle of Debrecen occurred from 6 to 29 October 1944 when the Soviet Red Army 's 2nd Ukrainian Front, assisted by allied Romanian troops, launched an offensive into Hungary against the German Sixth Army of Army Group South Ukraine. ‘Potato-peeling’ – The Mass Rapine of the Red Army: Above: Two Red Army soldiers during the Battle of Budapest in the early weeks of 1945. The second and third waves were less fortunate. So began the Siege of Budapest and the destruction of Central Europe’s ‘Pearl of the Danube.’ Unimaginable to all who lived in Budapest during this unfolding drama was that this first skirmish near the hospital would soon turn into one of the most frightful urban battles of World War II. The Soviet force… • Budapest Another leaflet read, ‘Die Schwarzen Raben fliegen aus Stalingrad‘ (The black ravens are flying from Stalingrad). The fighting traveled from track to track, through the rolling stock, and into the station. • Occupation of Germany At night a young German soldier named Gunther — he was just a few years older than I — would come and stay with us. By mid-morning on Christmas Day, Soviet armored reconnaissance units were filtering through the Buda hills toward the quiet Castle District. The plan was to cut Budapest off from the rest of the German and Hungarian forces. The Battle of Bucharest, also known as the Argeş-Neajlov Defensive Operation in Romania, was an important battle of the Romanian Campaign in World War I, in which the Central Powers occupied the Romanian capital and forced the Romanian Government, as well as the remnants of the Romanian Army to retreat to Moldova and re-establish its capital at Iaşi. Budapest would be reduced by brute force. In our immediate neighborhood everything was completely destroyed by mines and bullets. By January 20, in the last great German panzer raid of the war, lead elements of the Third Panzer Division pushed almost seventy miles into the Soviet rear, reaching the Danube near Dunapentele, where they shot up enemy river traffic. While the Soviets chipped away at Buda, they also concentrated on reducing Pest. • Malaya, • Narva Malinovsky requested a five-day respite to prepare his weary forces, which had since July pushed west through Romania, Transylvania, and eastern Hungary with barely a break. Szentkiralyi worked for the Allies after the war ended. At the same time, Malinovsky, commanding the inner encirclement ring and responsible for reducing Budapest, pulled a rifle corps out of the developing siege battle and reoriented it to the west. Without enough forces to fully exploit their near coup de main of Budapest, the Soviets went to ground, but not before securing vital positions on Schwabian Hill and at the Janos Hospital, within one and a half miles of the Royal Palace. Fantastic amalgams of Romanesque, Gothic and Byzantine straining to find their Magyar soul face boulevards which are unabashed imitations of both Paris and Vienna. Pfeffer-Wildenbruch and his command group never made it; they were surrounded and captured in a Buda villa after emerging from a sewer main a kilometer behind Soviet lines. Part of the broader Budapest Offensive, the siege began when Budapest, defended by Hungarian and German troops, was first encircled on 26 December 1944 by the Red Army and the Romanian Army. Citizens calling from suddenly occupied western Buda were dumbfounded when inner Budapest residents confirmed, via still intact phone lines, the unimaginable — the dreaded Russians had surrounded and were storming the city. Pinball Games: Arts of Survival in Nazi and Communist Eras,[26] written by George F. Eber, a richly detailed account of a 20-year-old Hungarian and his family living through the siege, was published posthumously in 2010. Soviet countermeasures were swift once the magnitude of the crisis revealed itself. For more great articles, subscribe to MHQ: The Quarterly Journal of Military History today! This tenuous line ran along the enormous Lake Balaton up through the eastern Pest bridgehead and then north along the Danube into Slovakia. What made Budapest unusual was that due to relatively benign Hungarian policies against the Jews preceding the German occupation in March 1944, the city was the only remaining urban area anywhere within Nazi-occupied Europe that had a substantial surviving Jewish population by December 1944. The cost of the campaign to the Soviets has never been confirmed, although estimates range from one hundred thousand to as high as 160,000 casualties. Arpad Goncz, the current president of Hungary and a Cold War-era dissident and poet, composed ‘The Mass Grave,’ capturing his memories of this frightful slaughter’s aftermath: ‘They dug two graves: In one they threw the Hungarians, in the other the Germans and the dead horses.
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